Publication

The exhibition is accompanied by an illustrated book, Strong Women in Renaissance Italy, produced by MFA Publications. By exploring works made by, for or about women, it aims to reconsider a period of creative ingenuity and artistic excellence from their often-overlooked perspective.

IMAGES

1. Self-Portrait, about 1556 Sofonisba Anguissola (Italian (Cremonese), about 1532–1625) Oil (?) on parchment *Beth Munroe Fund—Bequest of Emma F. Munroe *Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston  

2. The Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine, about 1340 Barna da Siena (Italian (Sienese), active about 1330–1350) Tempera on panel * Sarah Wyman Whitman Fund * Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston  

3. Bust of Cleopatra, about 1519–22 Pier Jacopo Alari Bonacolsi (Italian, about 1460–1528) Metal; bronze, with traces of gilding * William Francis Warden Fund * Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston  

4. Plate depicting the story of Perseus and Andromeda from the Isabella d'Este service, about 1524 Nicola da Urbino (Italian, active by 1520, died in 1537–38) Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica) * Otis Norcross Fund * Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 

​​​​​​​5. Judith, about 1520 Giovanni della Robbia (Italian, Florentine, 1469–1529 (?)) Glazed terracotta * Gift of Mrs. Albert J. Beveridge in memory of Delia Spencer Field * Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston  

6. The Meeting of the Queen of Sheba and Solomon; Cherub Holding Cornucopias of Cherries, third quarter of the 15th century Francesco del Cossa (Italian (Ferrarese), about 1436–about 1478) Tempera and oil on panel * Gift of Mrs. Walter Scott Fitz * Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston  

7. Salome with the Head of Saint John the Baptist, 1515–25 Bernardino Luini (Italian (Milanese), active in 1512, died in 1532) Oil on panel * Gift of Mrs. Walter Scott Fitz * Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston  

8. Portrait of a Woman with a Pearl Necklace, probably 1485–1495 Lorenzo Costa (Italian (Ferrarese), about 1460–1535) Oil on panel * Bequest of Mrs. Thomas O. Richardson * Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston  

 10. Virgin Adoring the Sleeping Christ Child, about 1605–10 Lavinia Fontana (Italian (Bolognese), 1552–1614) Oil on panel * Beth Munroe Fund—Bequest of Emma F. Munroe * Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston  

 12. Dish depicting Medea and Aeson, about 1530 Tin-glazed earthenware * Boston Athenaeum * Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 

14. Dona Gracia Nasi the Younger, 1558 Pastorino di Giovan Michele de' Pastorini (Italian, 1508 – 1592) Bronze * Theodora Wilbour Fund in memory of Zoë Wilbour * Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston 

15.  The Sleeping Christ Child, 1630-32 Artemisia Gentileschi (Italian, 1593 – after 1654) Oil on copper * Charles Potter Kling Fund and Beth Munroe Fund—Bequest of Emma F. Munroe * Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston  

16. Plate with a woman's profile, early 16th century Tin-glaze earthenware (maiolica) with metallic luster decoration * Boston Athenaeum * Photograph © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston  ## 

Wall Text and Labels

Strong Women in Renaissance Italy

Women in Renaissance Italy were artists, writers, and patrons; mothers, wives, daughters, and widows; nuns and healers; lacemakers and embroiderers; rulers and servants; businesswomen and farmers; and so much more.

Works of art made in this period of cultural creativity—from the mid-14th century to the early 17th—reveal women’s experiences. The history of the Italian Renaissance has long been told through the accomplishments of famous men. Here, the focus shifts to search out women’s stories, offering a more nuanced perspective.

In this exhibition, you’ll find a wide range of works of art, some made by women. There are images of powerful women—female saints, ancient and biblical heroines—and portraits of women who lived during the Renaissance. Some works were commissioned by women, or made for their use. Others suggest the more subtle impact women had on religious art and devotional experience. Imagine you are strolling through an ideal Italian Renaissance city. The exhibition design evokes Renaissance spaces, with a portico, a forecourt, and an interior hall. Here in the portico, you’ll meet women who set examples of faith and behavior, and, to your left, you’ll see paintings and a book, all by women. As you explore these spaces, you’ll see works of art that reveal the complexity of women’s lives in the past. We invite you to consider what they may have to say about our lives today.

Barna da Siena

Italian (Sienese), active about 1330–1350

The Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine, about 1340 Tempera on panel

This painting introduces important themes in this exhibition, with its powerful images of strong women serving as role models. Catherine of Alexandria had a mystical vision of her marriage to Jesus; here she faces her spiritual groom as he places a ring upon her finger, recalling the legal ceremony of marriage in Renaissance Italy. A princess, scholar, and orator who suffered torture and martyrdom for her Christian beliefs, Catherine was an important role model for women, including nuns who entered into symbolic unions with Jesus when they took vows of chastity.

The figures form a canopy over a family group—the child Jesus, standing between his mother Mary and his grandmother Anne. The scene directly below imparts a civic meaning to the painting: an angel oversees the kiss of peace, the legal act that resolved a feud, between two men who have thrown down their arms. At left, Saint Margaret of Antioch, whom women looked to for aid during childbirth, beats a demonic figure with a hammer. To the right, an angel repels another demon. The original context for this panel is unknown, but it suggests ways that women support peace and harmony, through marriage, childbirth, and child rearing, and by warding off evil.

Sarah Wyman Whitman Fund, 1915 15.1145

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Giovanni della Robbia

Italian (Florentine), 1469–1529 (?)

Judith, about 1520 Glazed terracotta

The biblical heroine Judith stands triumphantly holding the head of Holofernes, the enemy of her people. The brave widow infiltrated the Assyrian general’s camp, entering his tent after he had spent the evening eating and drinking, and beheading him with his own sword when he fell asleep. The culmination of Judith’s courageous subterfuge is represented in relief on the base of the sculpture, as she places the head into a sack held by her maidservant Abra. As a vulnerable woman, risking her body and her life in support of her country, Judith served as an exemplar of virtue for the small but righteous city of Florence.

Gift of Mrs. Albert J. Beveridge in memory of Delia Spencer Field, 1946 46.839

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Creative Women

Against the odds, some women became artists in Renaissance Italy. The smoothest path was for the daughters of artists, who could learn the skills for such professions as painting and printmaking in the family workshop. Girls and women who entered convents might be taught by nuns who created art in that setting. Some women learned to read and write, educated either in their homes or in convents, and later wrote and published poems, books, and devotional manuals. Girls typically learned lacemaking, embroidery, and other handicrafts. While the names of some of these artists are known today, many remain unidentified: textiles and works in humble materials like cut straw—a craft known to be practiced by women—were rarely signed or documented. When looking at objects like these, it is worth asking the question: could this have been made by a woman?

[ICON] Look for this icon to find works by women, and also those likely to have been made by women whose names are now lost to history.

Hidden Gold: Education and Writing in Renaissance Italy

In her 1582 epic poem Floridoro, Venetian writer Moderata Fonte (1555–1592) described gold buried in mines, waiting to be unearthed, shaped, and polished, as a metaphor for women’s intelligence, talents, and strength, and as a call for women’s education. Nearly two centuries earlier, Christine de Pizan (1364–about 1430), whose Italian father encouraged her education, wrote metaphorically about gold in her Book of the City of Ladies of 1405: gold’s worth is tested in a furnace, it is worked and polished to enhance its beauty and value. Through this imagery, Christine sought to inspire women facing the challenges that their gender unfairly created for them. Nearby, you’ll find a copy of Rime (poems) by Vittoria Colonna (1492–1547), which is the first single-author book of poetry by a woman to be published in Italy. By calling attention to these accomplished women, “hidden gold” can be revealed: they are role models for us today, as they were for girls and women in their own day.

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Vittoria Colonna

Italian, 1492–1547

Rime

Venice, 1542

Illustrated book with woodcuts (Frontispiece)

The small format of this book made it portable and easily available to its owner, who might want to read a poem or use it as a spur to devotional contemplation. It contains poems and verses by Vittoria Colonna, one of the most illustrious and pious women of her day and an advisor to popes. She was close friends with the artist and poet Michelangelo, with whom she exchanged poems and from whom she received highly finished drawings.

Gift of Miss Anna C. Hoyt, 1927 27.1316 ICON

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Barbara Longhi

Italian (Ravennate), 1552–about 1638

Virgin and Child

Oil on canvas

Barbara Longhi, the daughter and sister of painters, was known for devotional images like this one of Mary nursing the baby Jesus, who looks out at us as some drops of milk escape his lips. Mary’s milk was considered a physical manifestation of the human bond between mother and child, and a number of shrines in Italy claimed to have relics of her milk. In the later 16th century, religious reformers discouraged the representation of this subject, fearing that Mary’s bared breast might inspire lust in men. Longhi painted it often, perhaps for female audiences, including nuns in convents, who used such images as part of their devotional practices.

Charles Potter Kling Fund, 2022 2022.187 ICON

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Artemisia Gentileschi

Italian, 1593–after 1654

The Sleeping Christ Child, 1630–32 Oil on copper

Artemisia Gentileschi’s Sleeping Christ Child depicts an infant in a deep sleep, head supported on a soft cushion and his swaddling cloth loose. A small, intimate work painted on copper, which enhances the luminous quality of the scene, this may have been a devotional image. Gentileschi, like Lavinia Fontana and Barbara Longhi, was the daughter of an artist and learned her trade in her father’s workshop. This painting may indeed represent the sleeping baby Jesus, but it could just as easily be an image of another sleeping infant. It is possible that Gentileschi painted it for a woman: such small works on copper were sometimes intended for young brides or for nuns.

Charles Potter Kling Fund and Beth Munroe Fund—Bequest of Emma F. Munroe, 2022 2022.102 ICON

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Sofonisba Anguissola

Italian (Cremonese), about 1532–1625

Self-Portrait, about 1556 Oil (?) on parchment

Sofonisba Anguissola painted this self-portrait when she was about twenty-six years old. She is simply dressed and holds a large roundel in front of her body, almost like a shield. The cipher at the center includes the interwoven letters of her father’s name, Amilcare, a tribute to his efforts in supporting her talent and helping establish her professional career. The signature that encircles the cipher—written in Latin—translates as “Sofonisba Anguissola the maiden painted this with her own hand from a mirror in Cremona.” The hand of the artist plays an important role: her left thumb masks the letters “GO” in the word “VIRGO” so that it instead reads “VIR,” the Latin word for man and the root of the words virtue, virtuosity, and virtuoso, all qualities that Anguissola could claim for herself.

Beth Munroe Fund—Bequest of Emma F. Munroe, 1960 60.155 ICON

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Lavinia Fontana

Italian (Bolognese), 1552–1614

Virgin Adoring the Sleeping Christ Child, about 1605–10 Oil on panel

Lavinia Fontana inherited her family’s painting workshop, becoming the first woman in Renaissance Italy to run her own shop. She produced large-scale altarpieces and history paintings, as well as works on a smaller scale. Her Virgin Adoring the Sleeping Christ Child, with its small size and unusual coved shape, was probably made for use in a bedroom. It may have decorated a crib, where a baby could sleep protected by Mary and Jesus, or it may have been part of a bed, where a mother-to-be might contemplate it as she hoped for a beautiful, healthy, quiet baby.

Fontana herself had eleven children and surely understood the longing for quiet time for prayer and contemplation. Beth Munroe Fund—Bequest of Emma F. Munroe, 1986 1986.514

ICON

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Diana Mantuana, Printmaker

Diana Mantuana, also known as Diana Scultori, learned how to engrave copper plates from her father, an engraver and sculptor who served the Gonzaga court in Mantua. Her career was given an early boost when biographer Giorgio Vasari, having visited the family shop in 1566, marveled at her abilities in the 1568 edition of Lives of the Artists. Moving to Rome in the 1570s, Diana obtained a papal privilege for her work, extremely unusual for a printmaker. This assured her full rights to her engraved plates and the prints taken from them: only she could market and sell them.

Diana sometimes dedicated her prints to important potential patrons, displaying her own connections, identity, and stature. A rare medal of a woman artist displays Diana’s profile portrait on the front, while the reverse presents what is surely her hand, holding a burin and incising an image of the Madonna and Child. She thus associates herself with the evangelist Luke, patron saint of artists, who was believed to have depicted Mary and Jesus.

Diana Mantuana

Italian (Mantuan), about 1535–after 1587

After Giulio Romano

Italian, about 1499–1546

Latona Giving Birth to Apollo and Diana on the Island of Delos, 1561–65 Engraving

This early engraving was probably made in Mantua and is based on a work by Giulio Romano, the most famous artist working in Gonzaga Mantua in the early 16th century. Diana likely had access to a drawing by Giulio thanks to her father, who worked for the court. Perhaps she was drawn to it because it represented her namesake, the goddess Diana. This print, like several others, is signed just with her given name: she may have aspired to be recognized without reference to her family ties.

George Peabody Gardner Fund, 1958 58.426 ICON

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Diana Mantuana

Italian (Mantuan), about 1535–after 1587

After Cornelis Cort

Netherlandish,1533–1578

The Thorn-Puller, 1581 Engraving

This engraving after a drawing by Cornelis Cort, a famous foreign artist who worked in Rome, of a renowned ancient sculpture of a nude boy pulling a thorn from his foot, shows Diana Mantuana fully engaged with Rome and its cult of antiquity. She signed it inconspicuously, near the base of the statue, using a popular Latin formula: “Diana Incidebat,” or “Diana was engraving this.”

Bequest of Charles Sumner, 1874 74.34 ICON

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Diana Mantuana

Italian (Mantuan), about 1535–after 1587

After Francesco Salviati

Italian, 1510–1563

The Holy Family Receiving a Basket of Fruit from a Young Woman, 1575–76 Engraving

Gift of Amory Coolidge, 1943  43.1368

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The Virgin and Child, 1576 Engraving

Bequest of William Perkins Babcock, 1900 00.1981

Diana Mantuana based these two devotional images on the work of Francesco Salviati, a Florentine who had worked late in his life in Papal Rome. Her reliance on these designs signaled her stature by association with an important predecessor. She signed one with just her first name, but on the other, she used the formula in Latin that translates as “Francesco Salviati Inventor, Diana of Mantua was engraving this in Rome.” This signature calls out her Mantuan roots, her Roman predecessor, and her successful career in Rome.

ICON

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Diana Mantuana

Italian (Mantuan), about 1535–after 1587

After Giulio Romano

Italian, about 1499–1546

Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery, 1575 Engraving

Dated September 1, 1575, this engraving includes at the bottom the artist’s rare papal privilege from Pope Gregory XIII, which assured her full rights for ten years. Based on a work by Giulio Romano, both designer and engraver are recognized in the signature that translates as “Giulio Inventor, Diana made it.” The scene shows Jesus refusing to condemn a woman brought to him by a group of scribes and Pharisees, and instead asks if any of them are free of sin. The artist dedicated this print to Eleonora of Austria, Duchess of Mantua, calling herself Diana Mantuana and noting her artistic beginnings in Mantua. Here, she emphasizes her associations with Papal Rome and Gonzaga Mantua, illustrates her connection to artistic forebears, and celebrates her own achievements.

Harvey D. Parker Collection—Harvey Drury Parker Fund, 1897 97.1264 ICON

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Power and Patronage

Isabella d’Este was one of the most illustrious patrons and collectors of her day. A member of the distinguished Este family, rulers of Ferrara, she had the best education available to a Renaissance noblewoman. She learned to read, write, dance, and play music, and her library contained books by authors and poets both ancient and modern. She married Francesco II Gonzaga, becoming Marchioness of Mantua, a brilliant Northern Italian court city. There, she assembled superb collections of sculptures, antiquities, gems, and paintings, commissioning or collecting works by some of the most famous artists of her day, including Andrea Mantegna, Titian, Leonardo da Vinci, and Michelangelo. Isabella’s daughter, Eleonora Gonzaga, married Francesco Maria della Rovere, becoming Duchess of Urbino, a city in central Italy.

Women like Isabella and Eleonora were cultural trendsetters. They often ruled their cities when their husbands were away, and later as widows or as regents for their young sons. Isabella gathered writers, musicians, artists, and intellectual women around her. A number of objects displayed in this section were made in the court circles of Isabella d’Este, including Antico’s bronze bust of Cleopatra and a maiolica dish with Isabella’s coat of arms at the center, commissioned for her by Eleonora, as well as prints based on artworks made for the Mantua court.

Pier Jacopo Alari Bonacolsi, called Antico

Italian (Mantua), about 1460–1528

Cleopatra, about 1519–22 Bronze with traces of gilding

Isabella d’Este, Marchioness of Mantua, likely commissioned this bronze bust of Cleopatra, the last Ptolemaic queen of Egypt. This work is a Renaissance rethinking of one of the most famous women in history. Fourteenth- century poets Dante and Boccaccio saw Cleopatra as lustful and greedy, but here she is chastely dressed, elegant and pensive. The small snake on the base suggests she is considering her dire act of suicide, after her kingdom was lost and she was to be taken as war booty to Rome by the victorious Augustus Caesar. Faced with the dishonor of being paraded in his triumphal procession, Cleopatra chooses death. Nearby, prints based on Andrea Mantegna’s famous paintings of the Triumphs of Caesar give a sense of how a Renaissance artist imagined such a public spectacle might look.

William Francis Warden Fund, 1964 64.2174

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Nicola da Urbino

Italian (Urbino), active by 1520, died in 1537–38

Plate illustrated with scenes from the story of Perseus, about 1524 Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica)

Isabella d’Este’s coat of arms, celebrating the joining of the Este and Gonzaga families through her marriage to Francesco II Gonzaga, fills the center of this colorful maiolica plate. Look also for two of her personal emblems: the blazing candelabrum on a shield hanging in the trees at right, signifying illumination, and the musical staff with rests and pauses signaling silence. They point to Isabella’s intellectual and artistic pursuits, including reading and music. The plate is part of a large service commissioned by Isabella’s daughter Eleonora Gonzaga, Duchess of Urbino, as a gift to her mother. Stories from the life of the mythological hero Perseus are shown: he flies in to kill the sea monster, rescues the princess Andromeda, and displays the head of the slain Medusa.

Otis Norcross Fund, 1941 41.105

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After

Andrea Mantegna

Italian (Paduan, active in Mantua), 1431–1506

The Four Muses, about 1497–1505 Engraving

The musical staff signifying silence on Isabella d’Este’s maiolica plate nearby was one of her favorite emblems; she even had it embroidered onto one of her sumptuous dresses. It conveys her desire to withdraw to her studiolo, or private study, where she might quietly read, think, and play or listen to music. Among the many artworks in the studiolo was a painting, Mars and Venus (or Parnassus) by Mantegna, which includes the dancing muses. These graceful dancers in their loose garments and flowing hair were excerpted in this engraving of The Four Muses.

Isabella was compared to the nine muses of ancient Greece, flatteringly called the “Tenth Muse.” She was a patron of dancers and musicians and an amateur musician and dancer herself.

Fund in memory of Horatio Greenough Curtis, 1925 25.688

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Jacopo Filippo Foresti

Italian, 1434–1520

De plurimus claris sceletisque mulieribus (Of Many Renowned and Select Women)

Ferrara, 1497

Illustrated book with woodcuts Frontispiece

Jacopo Filippo Foresti, a friar of the Augustinian religious order, was one of several men who followed Boccaccio’s lead in publishing books about famous women. He took a particularly moralistic tone, but also included contemporary women, a recognition of some of the illustrious women of his time. Such books were often dedicated to powerful women, and here we see Foresti presenting the book to Beatrice of Aragon, queen of Hungary and Bohemia.

William A. Sargent Fund, 1941 41.2

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Giovanni Boccaccio

Italian, 1313–1375

De Claris Mulieribus (On Famous Women)

Ulm (Germany), 1473 Illustrated book with woodcuts

Giovanni Boccaccio’s book On Famous Women (1361–62) emulated works by Plutarch and other ancient writers who compiled stories of the lives of famous individuals, sometimes including illustrious women. His book in turn inspired a genre of books about women’s lives, almost always written by men and often taking distinctly misogynistic points of view. In this woodcut, however, we see the multitalented ancient artist Marcia painting and sculpting. She was a role model for women pursuing careers as artists, including Sofonisba Anguissola, represented by her self- portrait in this exhibition.

Maria Antoinette Evans Fund, 1931 31.1401

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Famous Women: History, Heroism, and Violence

Powerful women like the ancient Egyptian queen Cleopatra, the Biblical heroine Judith, and the Roman matron Lucretia have been written about and represented in works of art across the centuries. Images of these and other famous women raise questions about power, agency, intellect, and courage. What do they tell us about women’s roles and perceptions of women’s power in Renaissance Italy? How might their examples have served to teach women important values and virtues? Why does violence often underlie stories of women’s power?

One example is the story of the Sabine women, which was a central episode in the foundational mythology of the ancient city of Rome. The women were abducted and forced to become wives and mothers to the Romans, who needed to build their population. In the face of war, the Sabine women urged reconciliation, rather than seeking revenge. The women acted as peacemakers, supporting a stable society. Christine de Pizan, the Renaissance Italian author of the Book of the City of Ladies (1405), which highlights women’s virtues, intellect, and contributions across history, celebrated this aspect of the story, as does the imagery on a maiolica plate nearby.

Attributed to

Francesco Xanto Avelli da Rovigo

Italian, born about 1486–87, possibly died in 1542

Plate illustrated with the Suicide of Cleopatra, 1542 Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica)

This plate depicts Cleopatra’s death by suicide. She reclines with her breasts bared, bloody and bitten by the poisonous snake, her arm draped over her head. Marc Antony sits nearby, perhaps contemplating his own suicide. The scene stresses the couple’s shared choice of death in the face of dishonor, as well as the afterlife of their tragic love story. Cupid sleeps curled up on Cleopatra’s legs, signifying the end of their love in death, but suggesting reawakening. A winged figure of Fame flies above, about to crown the lovers; such crowns were also part of Renaissance wedding celebrations. These details hint at a positive reading of this sorrowful scene, aligned with Antico’s sensitive portrayal of Cleopatra nearby.

Gift of Mr. and Mrs. George Washington Wales, 1895 95.371

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Andrea Andreani

Italian (Mantuan), 1558/59-1623

After Giambologna

Flemish (active in Italy), 1529–1608

The Rape of a Sabine, about 1584 Chiaroscuro woodcut

This woodcut reproduces a famous sculpture carved by the Flemish artist Giambologna in the 1580s. It shows a nude woman held up by one man while another man kneels, looking up; the woman struggles to escape as fingers press deeply into her flesh. Carved from a single block of marble, the three-figured group was praised for the virtuosity of its composition, meant to be seen from all angles. Placed in the main civic square of Florence, its violent subject, the rape of the Sabine woman, seemed almost an afterthought. The Sabine women were kidnapped and violated in the service of the foundation of the city of Rome, that good outcome seeming to justify the violent actions against them.

Gift of W. G. Russell Allen, 1927  27.1278

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Alfonso Patanazzi

Italian (Urbino), active early 17th century

Plate illustrated with the Reconciliation of the Romans and the Sabines, 1610

Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica)

This large maiolica plate depicts the peaceful conclusion of the violent story of the abduction of the Sabine women

—represented in a woodcut nearby—by showing the reconciliation of the Romans and the Sabines. Instead of rebelling and demanding vengeance for the violence enacted upon them, the women, seeing little benefit in ongoing war, plead with their own families to make peace. They became for some writers, including Christine de Pizan (1364–about 1430), in her Book of the City of Ladies (1405), exemplars of peacemakers, acknowledging their sacrifices for the common good.

Gift of Henry S. Hall, Jr., 1956 RES.56.52

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Andrea Andreani

Italian (Mantuan), 1558/59–1629

After Andrea Mantegna

Italian (Paduan), active in Mantua, 1431–1506

Musicians and Standard-Bearers, 1599

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Captives, 1599

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Julius Caesar on His Chariot, 1599 Chiaroscuro woodcuts

Mantegna’s famous series of paintings, the Triumphs of Caesar, an imaginative reconstruction of the Roman Imperial triumphal entry, was one of the most significant commissions of Isabella d’Este’s husband, Francesco II Gonzaga. Prints after the paintings circulated widely, spreading their fame. Here, three woodcuts from the series show Caesar on his chariot; captives paraded through the streets; and the musicians and standard-bearers marching. The pomp and pathos of the scenes were surely in Isabella’s and Antico’s minds as the nearby bronze bust of Cleopatra took shape. The busts held high on poles in the scene of the standard-bearers are especially close comparisons.

Bequest of W. G. Russell Allen, 1955 2004.611.9, 2004.611.7, 2004.611.8

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After

Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio)

Italian (Urbinate), 1483–1520

The Martyrdom of Saint Cecilia, early to mid-16th century Engraving

Extreme violence can be used to illustrate fortitude and faith. Martyrdom involved torturous death for men and women alike. Here, Saint Cecilia is being boiled alive in a cauldron of oil, her hands joined in prayer, her eyes focused upwards towards the angel holding the crown and palm, heavenly rewards for her faith. The severed heads of her brothers are shown to her, to test her will. Cecilia would be seen as a model of faith for all believers.

Harvey D. Parker Collection—Harvey Drury Parker Fund, 1897 97.1263

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Marcantonio Raimondi

Italian, 1480–1527/34

After Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio)

Italian (Urbinate), 1483–1520

The Death of Lucretia, about 1511–12 Engraving

Marcantonio Raimondi’s engraving of a design by the painter Raphael shows the Roman matron Lucretia, one breast bared, left arm flung wide, about to stab herself in an act of heroic piety. Lucretia was raped by Tarquin, king of Rome, who threatened to accuse her of being unfaithful, questioning her chastity, if she revealed his violent act. Though she did expose his crime and her family, including her father and husband, vowed to avenge her, she still chose suicide. Lucretia’s tragic death inspired the fight against Tarquin’s tyrannical rule, eventually leading to the establishment of the Roman Republic.

Gift of Mrs. T. Jefferson Coolidge, 1921 21.10894

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Bernardino Luini

Italian (Milanese), active in 1512, died in 1532

Salome with the Head of Saint John the Baptist, 1515–25 Oil on panel

Salome, whose story is recounted in the gospels of Mark and Matthew, was used as a pawn by her mother Herodias to obtain revenge against Saint John the Baptist. Salome danced so beautifully for King Herod, that he promised her anything she desired. At her mother’s behest, she requested John’s head. Here Salome has taken hold of the salver, but turns her head away after seeing the result of her action, perhaps realizing its meaning and her role in it. Luini’s Salome, like Antico’s Cleopatra, shows her deep in thought and expressing quiet resistance in the face of violence and shame.

Gift of Mrs. Walter Scott Fitz, 1921 21.2287

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Antonio Minello de’ Bardi

Italian, about 1465–1529

Bust of a classical heroine, early 16th century Marble

This exquisitely carved marble bust presents an unidentified woman, her hair neatly contained in a decorative headdress and her breasts exposed. Her anguish is clear from her expression: with upturned eyes and open mouth, she seems to weep or cry out. Like Lucretia nearby, she is an image of pathos. On this small scale, the bust may have decorated a study, perhaps even a space belonging to a woman. She served as a model of heroic stoicism, all the more intriguing since we don’t know the story behind her grief.

Private Collection

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Girolamo Mocetto

Italian (Venetian), about 1458–1531

After Andrea Mantegna

Italian (Paduan, active in Mantua), 1431–1506

Judith with the Head of Holofernes, about 1500–1510 Engraving

Gift of William Norton Bullard, 1923 23.954

Isabella d’Este may have commissioned these two engravings of the biblical heroine Judith and her maidservant Abra with the severed head of the enemy general Holofernes. Derived from paintings by Andrea Mantegna, Gonzaga court painter, these images of two brave women explore female heroism, stressing how they worked together to achieve this remarkable feat. In Mantegna’s paintings, Abra is depicted as a Black African, and this may be true here as well. Isabella sought out African people, seemingly more as rarities than as individuals, and we know little about them. These images of Abra invite us to consider the roles that Africans may have played, or been required to play, at Isabella’s court.

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Attributed to

Giovanni Antonio da Brescia

Italian, active about 1490–1520

After Andrea Mantegna

Italian (Paduan, active in Mantua), 1431–1506

Judith with the Head of Holofernes, about 1490–1507 Engraving

Gift of Gustav Mayer, 1920 20.5438

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Science and Sorcery

Very few women were physicians in Renaissance Italy, but many were healers. They were nurses in convents and hospitals. In their homes, they took care of their families by administering or even creating remedies for everyday ailments, sometimes compiling recipes for cures, salves, and cosmetics in a “Book of Secrets.” Their knowledge came from practical experience and experimentation, and was often shared among friends and members of the household. Women grew their own herbs and flowers for these remedies, or bought them from local apothecaries. They sometimes became apothecaries themselves, either in one of the many pharmacies in convents or in a family business.

Women were thought to be closer to the natural world, because their bodies produced and nourished children. Those who were known as exceptionally talented healers were sought out for potions and charms to help people through challenging situations. But if things went wrong, these same women might be accused of witchcraft or sorcery, sometimes with dire consequences. The artworks displayed here allow us to explore some of these themes, including the idea that women who attained such arcane knowledge might be seen as suspect or even dangerous.

Il Robetta (Cristofano di Michele Martini)

Italian, 1462–after 1534

Allegory of Abundance, about 1510–1520 Engraving

Il Robetta’s print of a nude woman seated in a rocky landscape, surrounded by children and holding a staff topped with a vase of plants, is an allegory of abundance. She embodies the link between the nurturing female body and the regenerative aspects of nature.

Harvey D. Parker Collection—Harvey Drury Parker Fund, 1897 97.1262

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Giovanni della Robbia

Italian (Florence), 1469–1529 (?)

Flora, about 1520 Glazed terracotta

This head of a woman with a wreath of flowers in her hair is a fragment of a larger statuette that may have represented Flora, the goddess of spring. In the home, such an image would have evoked a sense of verdant renewal with the benevolent female goddess overseeing the household’s well-being.

Zoe Oliver Sherman Collection, 1922 22.658

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Attributed to

The Painter of the Apollo Basin

Italian (Urbino and Gubbio), active about 1523–32

Dish depicting Medea and Aeson, about 1530 Tin-glazed earthenware

Two scenes from the ancient Roman poet Ovid's Metamorphoses feature the sorceress Medea, shown as a muscular nude. Her father-in-law, Aeson, is old and weak. Jason asks Medea to use her magic to transfer years of his own life to his father. Instead, she creates a special potion; here she is about to slit Aeson's throat to drain his blood and revitalize him with her elixir of youth. Above, Medea appears again, standing in her chariot drawn by dragons, as she flies across vast lands gathering her ingredients. Medea’s muscular body seems more like that of a man, as if a strong woman must take on masculine characteristics. But here it celebrates Medea’s magical powers being put to good use, while revealing the ambivalence that women’s knowledge might create for Renaissance viewers.

Boston Athenaeum

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Albarello, about 1600 Italy (Sicily)

Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica)

The decoration on this tall maiolica drug jar, known as an albarello, includes knots—often featured in textile pattern books—and pearls, frequently worn by women for their associations with purity, virtue, and family wealth—both of which suggest it might have been owned or used by a woman. Labeled with the word for poppy, it probably contained a sleep aid.

Bequest of George Washington Wales, 1903 03.209

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Ugo da Carpi

Italian, active about 1502–1532

Sibyl Reading, early 16th century Chiaroscuro woodcut

The woman shown reading deep into the night is usually described as a Sibyl, or seer, a role model of female intuition and wisdom. Her book is illuminated not by candlelight but by a flaming torch held by a little boy, turning the scene almost into an allegory of enlightenment. This scene may also assert the value of allowing women to develop their intellect and as a call for the education of women.

Bequest of W. G. Russell Allen, 1964 64.1076

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Andrea Andreani

Italian, 1558/59–1629

Woman Contemplating a Skull, 1591 Chiaroscuro woodcut

A woman examines the skull in her hands. An oil lamp burns nearby. A devotional image of Christ with the instruments of his torture and death is on one wall and a clock on the other. Both clock and skull point to the idea of a memento mori, a reminder of one’s death and the passage of time. This may be a devotional image, recalling repentant saints like Mary Magdalen, often shown with a skull. Or might it represent an artist or poet working in her study? Dedicated to Eleonora Montalvi, a Sienese woman from a leading family, it reveals the complexities of women’s intellectual and spiritual lives.

Bequest of W. G. Russell Allen, 1975 1975.467

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Antonio da Trento

Italian, about 1510–about 1550

After Parmigianino (Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola)

Italian (born in Parma), 1503–1540

Circella Giving Drink to the Companions of Ulysses, mid-16th century Chiaroscuro woodcut

Bequest of W. G. Russell Allen, 1964 64.1094

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Circella Drinking with the Companions of Ulysses, mid-16th century Chiaroscuro woodcut

Harvey D. Parker Collection—Harvey Drury Parker Fund, 1897 97.1266

Sometimes thought to represent the sorceress Circe, who in Homer’s Odyssey turned men into animals, these two engravings more likely depict Circella, the sorceress invented by the poet Matteo Maria Boiardo in his Orlando Innamorato (Orlando in love). Circella turns visitors to her lands into snakes and hybrid creatures. Parmigianino’s enchantress displays the lightness and grace that defined beauty in this period, and here her beauty helps her to enchant the men. In one image, Circella holds out an elegant vessel containing a potion for a man to drink; in the other, she herself drinks, to convince her companions that the potion is safe. The scenes in the poem are meant to warn Orlando and his crew not to be seduced by Circella’s beauty, which masks treachery. But seen from the sorceress’s point of view, she may be protecting herself and her lands from these intruders.

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Learning and Creativity in the Convents

Convents were the most important places for the education of young girls and women, contributing to higher rates of literacy among all classes of Italian women during the Renaissance. Opportunities for creative expression usually not available to women were open to convent communities, which included women from all walks of life. Writing and publishing, painting and sculpting, lacemaking and embroidery, composing and performing music and plays, cultivating flowers and herbs and using them to create medicines—these activities supported the devotional lives of the sisters and often provided financial support for the convents.

Nuns in leadership positions commissioned or influenced the commissioning of works of art for both the private and public areas of convent complexes, extending the reach of the communities’ religious impact beyond the cloister.

Choirs of nuns performed from their enclosed areas, their voices filtering into the public spaces of convent churches. Some choirs were so famous that they became tourist attractions and encouraged donations to the community.

Saint Mary Magdalen Surrounded by Angels, about 1480–1500 Italy (Florence)

Terracotta with traces of paint

Mary Magdalen, one of Jesus’s disciples, served as a model of penitence and devotion. A famous mid-15th century wood sculpture by Donatello, presenting an emaciated Magdalen in a hair tunic, was the inspiration for works like this. Associated with an unnamed sinful woman pardoned by Jesus in the gospels, Mary Magdalen became a role model for all repentant sinners. The sinewy strength of her body, honed by ascetic practices of fasting and the rejection of all comforts, made her a powerful exemplar of virtue.

Gift of Mrs. C. C. Perkins, 1895  95.1377

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Gherardo del Fora

Italian, 1445–1497

Saint Mary Magdalen between Saint Peter Martyr and Saint Catherine of Siena, about 1475 Tempera on panel

According to the gospels, Mary Magdalen was present at Jesus’s crucifixion and was the first to see him after his resurrection. She visited his tomb, found it empty, and, as she was leaving, met him in a garden. He told her not to touch him (Noli me tangere in Latin) and instructed her to spread the word of his resurrection, making her the first apostle. Here, she is presented both as the penitent saint in the foreground and the first to encounter the risen Christ in the distance. The painting may have been made for a convent. The Noli me tangere was a popular subject in convents, suggesting that these communities sought to stress Mary Magdalen’s primary place in the story of Jesus’s life, death, and resurrection.

Bowdoin College Museum of Art, Brunswick, Maine, Gift of the Samuel H. Kress Foundation

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Fragment of a textile with the Noli Me Tangere

Italy, 14th–15th century

Silk compound weave with satin foundation and patterning wefts of silk and gilded animal membrane wrapped around linen

This fragment of a woven textile shows the scene of the Noli me tangere (Touch me not) repeated again and again. Mary Magdalen, the first to see Christ after his resurrection, kneels on a flowery field, reaching out for Jesus, who both greets her and warns her not to touch him. The metallic threads that would have made the textile shimmer in candlelight have darkened, but the repeated motif encourages extended meditation and prayer. A small fragment of a larger piece, it may have been used as an altar cloth, possibly in a convent setting.

Denman Waldo Ross Collection, 1904 04.1640

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Isodor Isolani

Italian, about 1480–1528

Inexplicabilis mysteriis gesta beatae Veronicae virginis (The Miracles and Deeds of the Blessed Virgin Veronica)

Italy (Milan), 1518

Illustrated book with 10 woodcuts

This book recounts the life of Saint Veronica of Binasco, a nun who experienced visions of Jesus, his mother Mary, and angels. Illustrated with ten woodcuts, this printed book spread Veronica’s story beyond her convent and allowed those who could not read Latin to learn about her life through the images. In this vision, Jesus offers communion— the ritual sharing of his body with the faithful— directly to Veronica.

To see the other woodcut illustrations in this book and learn more about Veronica, please visit the monitors on the table at the center of this gallery.

William A. Sargent Fund, 1963 63.137

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Rule of Saint Benedict for Nuns

Italy, about 1400–50

Tempera and ink on parchment, bindings of calfskin over oak boards

Though it is likely that nuns rarely left the convent, on certain occasions we know that they did interact with those outside, and sometimes even traveled. Enclosure rules were different for different orders. This Rule of Saint Benedict contains regulations and guidelines for nuns living in a Benedictine convent. The book is open to a chapter that offers guidance on how to welcome nuns who arrive as guests during pilgrimages, one reason for leaving a convent.

Denman Waldo Ross Collection, 1909 09.330

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Monte delle Oratione (Mountain of Prayer)

Italy (Florence), 1496

Illustrated book with two woodcuts

The “Mountain of Prayer” shows monks as gardeners: their labor is a metaphor for tending the “garden” of their own souls and the souls of the wider community of devotees. This garden imagery had meaning for all, but especially for men and women who entered monasteries and convents, which were seen as enclosed gardens of prayer and devotion.

Fund in memory of Horatio Greenough Curtis, 1939 39.589

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Meditationi sopra la Passione (Meditations on the Life of Christ)

Italy (Florence), about 1495 Illustrated book with 12 woodcuts

Meditations on the Life of Christ was originally intended to be used by nuns. Long, detailed meditations on the life of Jesus encouraged devotees to imagine themselves participating directly in the events and to respond emotionally to them. In this scene of the Crucifixion, women provide the role models: Mary is collapsed on the ground, supported by another holy woman, while Mary Magdalen kneels and embraces the cross. They respond with intense grief and compassion, encouraging readers and viewers to do the same.

Bequest of W. G. Russell Allen, 1964 64.390

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La rappresentatione di S. Apollonia vergine, & martire (The Representation of S. Apollonia virgin, & martyr)

Italy (Florence), 16th century Illustrated book with 12 woodcuts

One way to engage convent communities was to present plays based on the lives of Jesus, Mary, and the saints.

Convent theater was a creative way to learn and to teach, as it was enjoyable for both performers and audience, which sometimes included invited guests. The plays, or descriptions of them, were sometimes published, like this one about Saint Apollonia. It is illustrated with woodcuts: this scene even evokes a stage set, with a company of women surrounding the heroine seated on a throne.

William A. Sargent Fund, 1940 40.742

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Girolamo Savonarola

Italian (Ferrarese), 1452–1498

Predicha e revelationi (Sermons and Revelations)

Italy (Florence), 149

Illustrated book with one woodcut

This woodcut from a 15th-century edition of the reforming preacher and Dominican friar Savonarola’s Sermons and Revelations shows nuns emerging from their cloister to meet him and a companion friar. The scene demonstrates that women in convents were deeply engaged in the religious life of Florence beyond the convent walls. Savonarola encouraged women’s creative spirituality, especially in the convents, where his teachings continued to have an impact well into the 16th century, long after he was burned at the stake for heresy in 1498.

William A. Sargent Fund, 1946 46.1197

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Lace

Italy, 17th century Linen needle lace

This exquisite lace panel with floral motifs flanking the seated figure of an ecclesiastic and the monogram of Jesus (IHS) at the center is an example of the kind of lace that was produced in convent settings. Lacemaking and embroidery were standard parts of girls’ educations, encouraging focus and discipline, and their production could be a source of income for the community. The handiwork involved could even become a devotional activity, as the repetitive action could support meditation.

Gift of Henry W. Bliss, 1923 23.651 ICON

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Table cover

Italy, 17th century

Linen plain weave embroidered with silk and metal threads (gilt silver and silver strips wrapped around silk)

This exquisitely embroidered table covering is an example of women’s work at its finest. The artist, whose name is lost to history, used gold threads and brilliantly dyed thread to create floral patterns and images of flowers in vases of precious metal. Edged in small points also filled with embroidered florals, the entire border of the textile has extremely delicate pulled loops of gold thread. It is so finely crafted that it is almost impossible to determine which is the primary side.

To learn more about the embroidery on this table cover and to see some photographic details, please visit the monitors on the table in the center of this gallery.

Mary L. Smith Fund, 1958 58.1016 ICON

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Cap and cushion

Italy, late 16th–early 17th century

Silk satin embroidered with gold metallic yarns

Beautiful accessories like this small pillow and cap made in red silk with extremely refined embroidery were often created to use with Infant Jesus dolls. These two items were likely embroidered by a highly skilled woman, for her own use or for sale. The owner might dress the doll and attend to it like a real baby. These actions would create a sense of close interaction with Jesus, a devotional approach that is a characteristic aspect of women’s religious practice at this time.

To learn more about the embroidery on this cap and cushion and to see some photographic details, please visit the monitors on the table at the center of this gallery.

Gift of Philip Lehman in memory of his wife Carrie L. Lehman, 1938 38.1278, 38.1280 ICON

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Mariano D’Angelo Romanelli

Italian (Sienese), active 1375–1410

The Christ Child Wrapped in Swaddling Clothes, about 1375–1400 Polychromed and gilded wood

Girls were often given small wood sculptures of the infant Jesus, which they took with them when they entered convents or moved to their new homes as young brides. Though these doll-like sculptures are sometimes nude, this one is tightly wrapped in swaddling clothes and holds a little bird. The figure can stand on its own, as a focus for prayer, but could also be laid down in a crib-like setting if the owner wanted to use it as part of a nativity scene.

Private Collection

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Prayer and Devotional Practice

Women’s religious practices were central to spiritual life in Renaissance Italy. Mothers were often responsible for socializing children to their faith, creating devotional experiences to engage and instruct their families. Women performed rituals in their homes, reciting prayers and lighting candles. Works of art were central to such practices, including images of the Madonna and Child and saints who might serve as role models for children and adults alike. In Jewish homes, objects made from precious metals and prayer books were used in rituals like the celebration of Passover and the Sabbath.

Nuns prayed for the benefit of their broader communities and taught young girls about their faith. Women’s creativity often found outlets in devotional practices, through prayer and imaginative meditations on episodes from the gospels. Literate women could read and write devotional poems and treatises. They also influenced the creation of religious art: even if a woman did not commission a work of art, she might guide decisions about subject matter, materials, and meaning.

Andrea della Robbia

Italian (Florence), 1435–1525

Virgin and Child, about 1500 Glazed terracotta

Women, especially mothers, were usually responsible for educating children about prayer and religious practice.

They were encouraged to create sites of pious play for children, where they might place flowers or jewels or light candles before devotional images. This relief may have served as the focus of this kind of activity: holes near the necks of the figures were probably used to attach pieces of real jewelry. This tactile experience would both honor the holy figures and create a sense of closeness to them.

Gift of Charles C. Perkins, 1876 76.700

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Fragment of a textile with the Annunciation

Italy (Florence), 14th–15th century

Silk compound weave with patterning wefts of silk and linen core wrapped with gilded animal membrane

Repeating the Ave Maria (Hail Mary) was a common mode of prayer and developed into the devotional practice of the Rosary, where repetitive sets of this prayer were said, while meditating on scenes from the lives of Mary and Jesus. This fragment of a woven silk textile with a scene of the Annunciation repeated over and over evokes this mode of prayer. It might have been used in the home or convent, perhaps draped over a table that held objects like a rosary, used for personal prayer. In a church setting, it might have served as an altar cover.

Helen and Alice Colburn Fund, 1939 39.541

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Fragment of a textile with the Annunciation

Italy, 15th–16th century

Silk compound weave with satin ground and supplementary patterning silk and metallic weft threads

This scene of the Annunciation to Mary in an elaborate architectural setting includes text of the angel’s greeting to Mary, in Latin: Ave Maria gratia plena (Hail Mary full of grace). Shown twice here, the scene probably repeated for the entire length of the original textile and encouraged repetition of the prayer. This textile may have been part of a priest’s vestment. Fragments with devotional imagery like this were often cut from larger garments that may have been worn out or no longer used.

Denman Waldo Ross Collection, 1896 96.471

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The Annunciation and The Visitation

Italy (Faenza), about 1500

Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica)

This pair of scenes from the life of Mary calls to mind the popular Catholic prayer, the Ave Maria (Hail Mary). Its first line quotes the greeting of the angel to Mary who tells her that, though a virgin, she is pregnant with Jesus. The second line comes from the episode of the Visitation, when Mary’s cousin Elizabeth, pregnant though long barren, recognizes that Mary is with child because her own baby, John the Baptist, leaps in her womb. All three women in The Visitation, including the one looking on, smile as they share in the joy of these miraculous conceptions.

Devotees, especially women hoping for easy pregnancies, may have looked at these reliefs while praying the Ave Maria.

Kiyi and Edward M. Pflueger Collection. Bequest of Edward M. Pflueger and Gift of Kiyi Powers Pflueger, 2006 2006.1106.1, 2006.1106.2

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Ludovico Carracci

Italian (Bolognese), 1555–1619

Portrait of a Widow, about 1585 Oil on canvas

A woman prays before a crucifix set on a table that holds other objects used in private devotional practice: a prayer book with the interwoven letters M and S, a rosary, and devotional tokens and medals. She wears the black cloth- ing, headdress, and veil that identify her as a widow. With one hand to her heart, the other palm open in acceptance, she expresses her own devotion and invites others to emulate her in prayer. Widows in Renaissance Italy often took on greater responsibilities for the spiritual life of their families, as well as for their financial well-being and social standing.

Dayton Art Institute

Museum purchase with funds provided by Dr. and Mrs. E.R. Arn and the Junior League of Dayton, Ohio, Inc., 1958.15

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Titian (Tiziano Vecellio)

Italian (Venetian), about 1488–1576

Saint Catherine of Alexandria, about 1567 Oil on canvas

Catherine of Alexandria presents a powerful role model for prayer before a crucifix, a sculpted representation of Jesus crucified on the cross. Elegantly dressed, she kneels with her arms crossed in front of her chest, her head lifted in adoration. Catherine is identified by the instruments of her martyrdom—the broken wheel beneath her knee and the sword. Set into a loggia whose space seems vast for the scale of the saint, the scene becomes a visual metaphor for the transporting power of meditation.

1948 Fund and Otis Norcross Fund, 1948 48.499

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Bernardo Daddi

Italian (Florentine), active about 1320–1348

The Crucifixion, before 1328 Tempera on panel

Bernardo Daddi likely made this small painting for private use in the home or convent. At left, three women hold Mary, who has fainted with grief. Mary Magdalen, in a red robe, embraces the base of the cross. To her right, a woman in purple kneels in prayer. Her halo suggests that she is a saint, but her contemporary dress and lack of identifying attributes make her a role model for the woman who might use this image to aid her devotions. She would imagine herself kneeling there too, feeling the emotions aroused by the tragic event.

Helen Collamore Fund, 1923 23.211

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Joel ben Simeon

German, active about 1445–after 1509

Prayer book (siddur) of Menachem ben Samuel and his daughter Maraviglia

Italy (Florence), 1469 Illuminated manuscript

Women’s participation in Jewish ritual practice in the home is brought vividly to life in this Florentine prayer book made by Joel ben Simeon, one of the most significant Jewish artists and scribes active in 15th-century Italy. Created for a father and his daughter Maraviglia, it includes several illustrations of people praying and performing Jewish religious rituals. On this page, a woman, probably Maraviglia herself, lifts a cup during the Havdalah ceremony, which marks the end of Shabbat on Saturday evening.

British Library, Add MS 26957

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Honorata Foa

Italian, 16th century

Torah binder, 1582–83

Linen embroidered with silk thread

Torah binders keep the scrolls from unrolling while stored in the ark in the synagogue. Women were not allowed to touch the Torah or read from it, but in Italian practice they gained special blessings for making textiles to adorn the Torah scroll, the most holy object in the Jewish faith. Binders often featured stitched dedications expressing this personal act of piety and devotion.

This example—one of the earliest known Italian Torah binders—was embroidered in 1582–83 by a woman named Honorata Foa. The dedicatory inscription reads: In honor of the pure Torah, my hand raised an offering, I Honorata .

. . wife of . . . Samuel Foa . . . , “it is such a little one,” the year 5343.

The Jewish Museum, New York

Gift of Dr. Harry G. Friedman, F 4927 ICON

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Pastorino di Giovan Michele de’ Pastorini

Italian, 1508–1592

Gracia Nasi the Younger Italy (Ferrara), 1558 Bronze

Inscription(s):

Hebrew inscription: Gracia Nasi; Latin inscription: at the age of 18

This medal commemorates the marriage of Gracia Nasi (1540–1596), a member of one of the most powerful and wealthy Jewish families in Europe. She was the niece of the more famous Gracia Nasi the Elder, but her own tumultuous life included birth and baptism as a Catholic in Antwerp and a declaration at age sixteen to the Venetian Inquisition that she wanted to live openly as a Jew. Made in Ferrara, this is one of the very few medals depicting a Jewish sitter. It is inscribed with Gracia’s name in Hebrew and her age of eighteen in Latin.

Theodora Wilbour Fund in memory of Zoë Wilbour, 2021 2021.113

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The Material Goods of Marriage

The rituals of marriage were marked by works of art. Portraits, marriage jewelry, ceramics, and large wooden chests called cassoni all served particular purposes. Household linens and luxurious textiles were amassed at the time of a wedding, for practical use in the home and as evidence of material wealth. Painted birth trays were given to brides and then used to celebrate successful childbirths. These objects often remained in families, showing changing concerns across time and generations.

The materials used in making these works had specific meanings. Gold, the purest and most precious metal, brilliant and costly, could signify virtue, magnificence, and wealth. Rare pearls were symbols of purity and chastity, the most important virtues for a Renaissance woman, while signaling the wealth and status of the family. Coral, its red color evoking the healthy flow of blood through the body, was considered a talisman, thought to protect family members, especially children, from illness and evil.

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Lorenzo Costa

Italian (Ferrarese), about 1460–1535

Portrait of a Woman with a Pearl Necklace, probably 1485–95 Oil on panel

The identity of this woman is not known, but she has a distinct personality and is presented with directness and empathy. Her portrait was likely painted to celebrate her marriage. She wears a cap decorated with small pearls and a necklace with a double strand of pearls and a gold pendant set with gems. The pearls convey the virtues of purity and chastity required of a new bride, and, along with the jewel, communicate wealth and status.

Bequest of Mrs. Thomas O. Richardson, 1925 25.227

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Plate with a woman's profile

Italy (Deruta), early 16th century

Tin-glaze earthenware (maiolica) with metallic luster decoration

This large and luxurious plate, made for display and probably to celebrate a marriage, was decorated in luster glaze that emulates gold. Such plates were more likely to survive over time than objects made from real gold, which were often melted down. The inscription on the scroll—CHI SEM[IN]A V[E]RTU FAMA RECHORLIE—translates as "Who sows Virtue gathers Fame"—an appropriate motto for a woman about to be married. The extensive floral decoration signals the hope for a fertile union.

Boston Athenaeum

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Probably by

Maestro Giorgio Andreoli

Italian (Gubbio), about 1465/70–1555

Plate with female portrait and border with trophies

Italy (Gubbio), 1524

Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica) with metallic luster decoration

This brilliantly colored plate is executed in the difficult technique of luster glaze, which gives the surface a metallic sheen. In the center is a portrait of a colorfully dressed woman, probably celebrating a betrothal or marriage. She is encircled by glaze that mimics precious gold. The decorative border of trophies and armor implies triumph, but also suggests peace, as the arms have been discarded.

Anita M. Linzee Fund, 1946 46.460

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Betrothal ring

Italy, 15th–16th century Silver

William D. Boardman Collection—Gift of Mrs. Alice L. Boardman, 1901 01.5974

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Marriage pendant

Italy (Florence), about 1455–65

Gilded silver, niello

H. E. Bolles Fund, 1969 69.74

These pieces of jewelry are both associated with marriage. The clasping hands on the ring represent the marriage vow and a promise of fidelity (the Italian word for wedding ring is fede, or faith). The paired profiles on the pendant join the couple in everlasting dialogue. This little case was made to hold a fragile piece of blessed wax, bringing religious practice into the marriage. It would have been worn as a talisman by either the man or the woman.

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Inkstand

Italy (probably Faenza), about 1500 Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica)

This inkstand celebrates marriage and is decorated with the paired profiles of a bride and groom. The clasped hands demonstrate the promise of betrothal and devotion, as does the word for the marriage ring, the fede—the Italian word means “faith.” The inscription reads “IO.TE.DO.LA.MANE / DAME.LA.FEDE,” or “I give you my hand/Give me the ring.”

John H. and Ernestine A. Payne Fund, 1956 56.310

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Casket

Italy (Venice), 16th century

Straw marquetry on colored paper, pine

The cut straw decoration on this box was a technique practiced primarily by women. It epitomizes the anonymous work of women across the centuries whose handiwork is not typically signed. Enhancing the naturally golden color of the straw by burnishing it, the maker then cut it into decorative floral and animal shapes, which she applied to a support. This fictive gold demonstrates ingenuity and creativity, emulating precious metal using a plentiful product of nature.

Museum purchase with funds donated by Mrs. Charles Gaston Smith's Group, 1940 40.234 ICON

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Francesco del Cossa

Italian (Ferrarese), about 1436–about 1478

The Meeting of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon, third quarter of the 15th century Tempera and oil on panel

Wooden trays, usually painted on both sides, were often commissioned to encourage or to mark a child's birth, heralding future prosperity. Covered with a cloth and loaded with sweets and fruits, these trays were carried into the mother’s bedchamber as an offering of sustenance and celebration—and afterwards kept as family heirlooms. Here we see the Queen of Sheba, who traveled to Jerusalem to meet with King Solomon. Both were renowned for their wisdom and their wealth. They stand holding hands, recalling the ritual gesture of marriage. Since such trays were associated with fertile marriage, this meeting expresses hope for a well-matched and fruitful union.

Gift of Mrs. Walter Scott Fitz, 1917  17.198

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Attributed to

Francesco del Cossa

Italian (Ferrarese), about 1436–about 1478

Cherub Holding Cornucopias of Cherries, third quarter of the 15th century Tempera and oil on panel

This robust cherub holds two cornucopias with cherries, representing abundance and fertility, and wears a necklace of coral to protect from evil and ensure good fortune. The backs of birth trays often depict healthy little boys, the ideal outcome of any pregnancy in Renaissance Italy.

Gift of Mrs. Walter Scott Fitz, 1917  17.198

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Apollonio di Giovanni

Italian (Florentine), about 1416–1465

Journey of the Queen of Sheba

Tempera on panel

This painted panel once decorated the front of a marriage chest, or cassone. These chests were filled with the goods and furnishings, including luxurious textiles, clothing, jewelry, and artworks, that made up a significant part of a bride’s dowry. The luxury, wealth, and exoticism displayed in this scene of the journey of the Queen of Sheba might recall wedding processions for its contemporary Florentine viewers. Once the cassone became part of the furnishings of a woman’s new home, might she seek out the story of the Queen of Sheba, learn about this female leader, and teach her children about her? Could this image of a woman of wisdom exert power in the lives of the family and especially the women of the household who would live with it over time?

Herbert James Pratt Fund, 1923 23.252

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Embroidered picture of The Pietà

Italian, 16th century Silk, embroidery

This exquisitely executed embroidery depicts The Pietà, a scene of lamentation after the death of Jesus where he is held on the lap of his mother Mary. It is an excellent example of what one 16th-century writer described as “painting with a needle, just like Apelles,” comparing the virtuosity of women embroiderers to the famous ancient painter. The brilliant colors of the threads are well preserved, their careful blending creating a sense of light and shadow, and a rich harmony of tones. The metallic threads of the frame add splendor, while contributing to the devotional function with objects recalling Jesus’s suffering. This luxurious devotional object was probably made by a woman, for private devotion in the home.

William E. Nickerson Fund, No. 2, 1964 64.62 ICON

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Length of velvet

Italy (possibly Venice), 15th century

Silk velvet brocade with silk and gold-colored metallic thread

This deep purple velvet brocade embellished with gold thread is a beautiful survivor from Renaissance Italy. An example of the luxurious textiles that were used for clothing, as well as for ornamenting the homes of well-to-do families, such a panel might have been part of a woman’s trousseau. A length like this might be hung from the windows of an elite home as a banner during festive civic occasions. It probably survived thanks to a robust second- hand market that meant it would be appreciated even if its original owners no longer needed it.

Mary L. Smith Fund, 1958 58.22

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Fabrics for the Home

Some of the most valuable objects in a wealthy woman’s dowry were the splendid silk velvets created with precious gold threads and the costly materials needed to make dyes. Beautifully embroidered linen cloths were included, as well as lengths of lace used to decorate clothing and household furnishings. Women themselves, from the richest to the poorest, often embroidered linens, or furnished them with lace panels and borders. More commonplace linens included towels and kitchen cloths, which were often ornamented with exotic patterns in blue dyes. The wide range of textiles displayed here gives a sense of the material world of the Renaissance home, and the ways that women lived with, and sometimes created, luxurious and practical textiles as they ran their households and cared for their families.

To learn more about some of the textiles in this case and to see detailed photographs, please visit the monitors on the table in the center of this gallery.

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[In Upper Case from Left to Right]

Towel

Italy, 17th century

Linen plain weave with needle lace inserts and trim Gift of Mrs. George Linder, 1907 07.855

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Velvet panel

Italy, about 1450–75 Silk

Cut and voided velvet with discontinuous supplementary patterning metallic wefts Gift of Philip Lehman in memory of his wife Carrie Lehman, 1938 38.1041

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Table Cover

Italy (Sicily), 16th century Embroidered linen

Gift of James William Paige, 1883 83.242 ICON

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[In Lower Case from Left to Right]

Towel

Italy, 16th–18th century

Linen twill weave with complementary and supplementary cotton patterning wefts Denman Waldo Ross Collection, 1920 20.917

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Giacomo Franco

Italian, 1550–1620

Habiti d’houmeni et donne venetiane

Venice, 1610

Illustrated book with 26 engravings and etchings

Books recording the customs and costumes of Renaissance Italy were especially popular in cosmopolitan Venice, providing a glimpse of how women lived and dressed. Here, young women ride in gondolas, “going to visit their relatives in convents.” Elite Venetian women were very restricted in their movements in the city, so this sort of outing allowed them to see and be seen. A gondola ride was one way that women could dress up and go out, showing off their splendid dresses, their long sun-beached, golden hair flowing down their backs.

William A. Sargent Fund, 1944 44.826

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Matteo Pagano

Italian, 1515–1588

La gloria e l’honore di ponti tagliati a fogliami

Venice, 1555

Illustrated book with 29 woodcuts Frontispiece

Three women work in a portico that looks out onto a distant landscape. One displays a finished panel with a decora- tive motif, while the others sit with embroidery pillows on their laps, concentrating as they copy directly from the model. Knowledge was shared among women, and handiwork was learned by example and perfected through practice.

William A. Sargent Fund, 1941 41.487

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[Top]

Lace

Italy, 17th century

Linen, needle lace (punto in aria: points in the air)

Gift of Mrs. Paul G. Pennoyer in memory of her mother Jane Norton Morgan, 1941 41.931 ICON

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[Bottom]

Lace

Italy, 17th century Linen, needle lace

Bequest of James William Paige, 1895 95.916 ICON

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Pattern Books and Isabella Parasole

Books of patterns for lace and embroidery served the practical purpose of guiding women’s handiwork. Usually compiled by men, these books typically had extravagant titles that played on ideas of women’s virtue, setting the practices of needlework into a moralizing context. These publications often combined the author’s original designs with others collected over time, communicating a certain worldliness while presenting visually appealing books to a mostly female audience.

Isabella Parasole, who learned to make woodcuts in her family’s workshop in Rome, overturned expectations in this field by creating her own lace designs and publishing them in a series of popular books. As a woman, she had the practical experience of making lace. She used her gender to help market these books, and to stress her creativity in a field of publishing dominated by men.

Isabella Parasole

Italian (Roman), about 1575–about 1625

Gemma pretiosa delle virtuose donne

Rome, 1625

Illustrated book with 38 woodcuts

Isabella Parasole upended accepted notions about women’s creativity in the genre of lace pattern books, which typically contained designs invented or compiled by men to serve as models for women’s work. She produced a series of pattern books that enjoyed great success, enhanced by the fact that she was a woman. They display her creativity and agency in design and judgment and show her understanding of the techniques of lace production as well as her virtuosity in making woodcuts. She also demonstrated women’s creative potential, providing a role model for female readers wanting to embrace their own creativity and value their own judgment.

William A. Sargent Fund, 1942 42.496

To learn more about lacemaking, pattern books, and Parasole, please visit the monitors on the table at the center of this gallery.

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Cesare Vecellio

Italian (Venetian), 1521–1601

Corona delle nobili et virtuose donne libro primo

Venice, 1591

Illustrated book with 79 woodcuts

Cesare Vecellio’s pattern book presents designs for lace, like the woodcut on the right page of this opening. On the left is an image meant to inspire discussion about art making and about women’s virtue and beauty, framed by patterns for lace panels. A sculpture of Venus stands on the back of a tortoise, holding an apple in one hand and pointing at her head with the other. The caption above translates as “It is fitting that the goodness and not the beauty of the woman should be revealed.” Behind her, two women focus industriously on their needlework, while a sculptor works with hammer and chisel on a marble statue, setting up a comparison between women’s and men’s artistry.

William A. Sargent Fund, 1942 42.495

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Découpé folding fan

Italy or France, about 1590–1600

Carved ivory sticks and cut skin leaf with silk plain weave

The decoration on this fan derives from popular lace patterns, translating intricate cut circles and lozenges into a more robust material suitable for a fan. Compare the patterns on the fan with the work of Isabella Parasole in her book at bottom left.

Oldham Collection, 1976 1976.182

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Lace

Italy, 16th century

Linen drawn with bobbin lace trim

This long panel of lace featuring symmetrically placed fantastic animals and stars may have been used to decorate a piece of furniture in the home. Like most lace in Renaissance Italy, it was very likely made by a woman. Girls were taught to make lace as part of their education, to instill focus and discipline. Well-off women might continue to make lace for their own pleasure or to furnish their homes. Poorer girls and women worked at low wages or for their keep, supplying the lucrative Venetian lace-making industry.

Gift of Miss Harriet G. Hamlin, in memory of her sister Jane Hamlin, 1943 43.237 ICON

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What Women Wore

Costume books became popular in Italy in the 16th century. Collections of images, sometimes with accompanying descriptions, present different types of people, identifiable by their clothing. From working people to nobles, these depictions show the variety of Italian life, in cities, towns, and countryside. Images of women in these books provide a window into their lives and experiences.

The engraved illustrations, sometimes hand colored, show a range of women, including workers such as farmers and weavers; courtesans and noblewomen wearing luxurious fabrics; and women from different places. The clothing, textiles, shoes, and other accessories that survive from the Renaissance, along with images in costume books, provide a good sense of the material world of Renaissance women and the variety of their roles.

Platform shoes called chopines were especially popular in Renaissance Venice and could reach astonishing heights. These very high shoes would likely have been hidden below the long skirt of a fashionable woman, allowing her to display her wealth and status by wearing dresses that used longer lengths of sumptuous fabric. The woman would also require the help of a companion to be able walk in such high chopines.

under the wearer’s dress, as was typical for Venetian women, but one must wonder if and when a woman might find the opportunity to show these special shoes.

The Elizabeth Day McCormick Collection, 1944 44.522a-b

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Pietro Bertelli

Italian (Paduan), active late 16th–early 17th century

Diversarum nationum habitus

Padua, 1589

Unbound engravings with hand-applied color Hand-colored engraving of a Venetian courtesan

Sex workers who had to navigate the streets might wear high chopines just like wealthy or noble women, but probably did not have a companion to help them along, a jarring image of how precarious their lives could be. In this hand-colored engraving, a “Venetian courtesan” pulls her long skirt aside to reveal both her high chopines and her masculine pantaloons. She dressed to create an erotic charge by both emulating and undercutting the fashions of elite Venetian women.

The Elizabeth Day McCormick Collection, 1944 44.870.1-53